How can HIV transmission be prevented?

Hiv can be transmitted in three main ways:

 

 

• Sexual transmission
• Transmission through blood  
• Mother-to-child transmission

 

For each route of transmission there are things that an individual can do to reduce or eliminate risk. There are also interventions that have been proven to work at the community, local and national level.1

 

 

 

Wherever there is HIV, all three routes of transmission will take place. However the number of infections resulting from each route will vary greatly between countries and population groups. The share of resources allocated to each area should reflect the nature of the local epidemic - for example, if most infections occur among men who have sex with men then this group should be a primary target for prevention efforts.

 

 "Knowing your epidemic in a particular region or country is the first, essential step in identifying, selecting and funding the most appropriate and effective HIV prevention measures for that country or region." - UNAIDS guidelines for HIV prevention 2

 

HIV prevention should be comprehensive, making use of all approaches known to be effective rather than just implementing one or a few select actions in isolation. Successful HIV prevention programmes not only give information, but also build skills and provide access to essential commodities such as condoms or sterile injecting equipment. It should be remembered that many people don’t fit into only one “risk category”. For example, injecting drug users need access to condoms and safer sex counselling as well as support to reduce the risk of transmission through blood.

 

What are the obstacles?

 

Despite the evidence that they do not encourage drug use, some authorities still refuse to support needle exchanges and other programmes to help injecting drug users. Restrictions on pharmacies selling syringes without prescriptions, and on possession of drug paraphernalia, can also hamper HIV prevention programmes by making it harder for drug users to avoid sharing equipment.Many resource-poor countries lack facilities for rigorously screening blood supplies.31 In addition a lot of countries have difficulty recruiting enough donors, and so have to resort to importing blood or paying their citizens to donate, which is not the best way to ensure safety. In much of the world the safety of medical procedures in general is compromised by lack of resources, and this may put both patients and staff at greater risk of HIV infection. Find out more about preventing HIV transmission through blood.

Mother-to-child transmission

What works?


HIV can be transmitted from a mother to her baby during pregnancy, labour and delivery, and later through breastfeeding. The first step towards reducing the number of babies infected in this way is to prevent HIV infection in women, and to prevent unwanted pregnancies.



There are a number of things that can be done to help a pregnant woman with HIV to avoid passing her infection to her child. A course of antiretroviral drugs given to her during pregnancy and labour as well as to her newborn baby can greatly reduce the chances of the child becoming infected. Although the most effective treatment involves a combination of drugs taken over a long period, even a single dose of treatment can cut the transmission rate by half.32



A caesarean section is an operation to deliver a baby through its mother’s abdominal wall, which reduces the baby’s exposure to its mother’s body fluids. This procedure lowers the risk of HIV transmission, but is likely to be recommended only if the mother has a high level of HIV in her blood, and if the benefit to her baby outweighs the risk of the intervention.33 34



Weighing risks against benefits is also critical when selecting the best feeding option. The World Health Organisation advises mothers with HIV not to breastfeed whenever the use of replacements is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe. However, if safe water is not available then the risk of life-threatening conditions from replacement feeding may be greater than the risk from breastfeeding. An HIV positive mother should be counselled on the risks and benefits of different infant feeding options and should be helped to select the most suitable option for her situation.35

What are the obstacles?

In much of the world a lack of drugs and medical facilities limits what can be done to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Antiretroviral drugs are not widely available in many resource-poor countries, caesarean section is often impractical, and many women lack the resources needed to avoid breastfeeding their babies.
HIV-related stigma is another obstacle to preventing mother-to-child transmission. Some women are afraid to attend clinics that distribute antiretroviral drugs, or to feed their babies formula, in case by doing so they reveal their HIV status.
Find out more about preventing mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and why PMTCT programmes are failing to reach most women in need.

World's Tallest Buildings

Rank m ft


1. Burj Khalifa (formerly Burj Dubai), Dubai, The United Arab Emirates 2010 160 828 2,716

2. Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 508 1,667

3. World Financial Center, Shanghai, China 2008 101 492 1,614

4. Petronas Tower 1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452 1,483

5. Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452 1,483

6. Greenland Financial Center, Nanjing, China 2009 66 450 1,476

7. Sears Tower, Chicago 1974 110 442 1,451

8. Guangzhou West Tower, Guangzhou, China 2009 103 438 1,435

9. Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China 1999 88 421 1,381

10. Two International Finance Centre, Hong Kong 2003 88 415 1,362

11. Trump International Hotel, Chicago, U.S. 2009 96 415 1,362

12. CITIC Plaza, Guangzhou, China 1996 80 391 1,283

13. Shun Hing Square, Shenzhen, China 1996 69 384 1,260

14. Empire State Building, New York 1931 102 381 1,250

15. Central Plaza, Hong Kong 1992 78 374 1,227

16. Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong 1989 70 367 1,205

17. Bank of America Tower, New York City, U.S. 2009 54 366 1,200

18. Almas Tower, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 2009 68 363 1,191

19. Emirates Tower One, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 1999 54 355 1,165

20. Tuntex Sky Tower, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 1997 85 348 1,140

21. Aon Centre, Chicago 1973 80 346 1,136

22. The Center, Hong Kong 1998 73 346 1,135

23. John Hancock Center, Chicago 1969 100 344 1,127

24. Rose Tower, Dubai 2007 72 333 1,093

25. Shimao International Plaza, Shanghai 2006 60 333 1,093

26. Minsheng Bank Building, Wuhan, China 2007 68 331 1,087

27. Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang, N. Korea 1995 105 330 1,083

28. China World Trade Center, Beijing, China 2009 74 330 1,083

29. The Index, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 2009 80 328 1,076

30. Q1, Gold Coast, Australia 2005 78 323 1,058

31. Burj al Arab Hotel, Dubai 1999 60 321 1,053

32. Chrysler Building, New York 1930 77 319 1,046

33. Nina Tower I, Hong Kong 2006 80 319 1,046

34. New York Times Building, New York 2007 52 319 1,046

35. Bank of America Plaza, Atlanta 1993 55 317 1,039

36. U.S. Bank Tower, Los Angeles 1990 73 310 1,018

37. Menara Telekom Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1999 55 310 1,017

38. Emirates Tower Two, Dubai 2000 56 309 1,014

39. AT&T Corporate Center, Chicago 1989 60 307 1,007

40. The Address Downtown Burj Dubai, Dubai, U.A.E. 2008 63 306 1,004

41. JP Morgan Chase Tower, Houston 1982 75 305 1,002

42. Baiyoke Tower II, Bangkok 1997 85 304 997

43. Two Prudential Plaza, Chicago 1990 64 303 995

44. Wells Fargo Plaza, Houston 1983 71 302 992

45. Kingdom Centre, Riyadh 2002 41 302 992

46. Aspire Tower, Doha 2006 36 300 984

47. Arraya 2, Kuwait City, Kuwait 2009 56 300 984

48. One Island East Centre, Hong Kong, China 2008 69 298 979

49. First Bank Tower, Toronto 1975 72 298 978

50. Shanghai Wheelock Square, Shanghai, China 2009 58 298 978

51. Eureka Tower, Melbourne 2006 91 297 975

52. Comcast Center, Philadelphia, U.S. 2008 57 297 975

53. Landmark Tower, Yokohama, Japan 1993 73 296 971

54. Emirates Crown, Dubai, U.A.E 2008 63 296 971

55. 311 South Wacker Drive, Chicago 1990 65 293 961

56. SEG Plaza, Shenzhen, China 2000 71 292 957

57. American International Building, New York 1932 67 290 952

58. Key Tower, Cleveland 1991 57 289 947

59. Plaza 66, Shanghai 2001 66 288 945

60. One Liberty Place, Philadelphia 1987 61 288 945

61. Columbia Center, Seattle, U.S. 1985 76 285 937

62. Millennium Tower, Dubai 2006 59 285 935

63. Sunjoy Tomorrow Square, Shanghai 2003 55 285 934

64. Chongqing World Trade Center, Chongqing, China 2005 60 283 929

65. Cheung Kong Center, Hong Kong 1999 63 283 929

66. The Trump Building, New York 1930 71 283 927

67. Bank of America Plaza, Dallas 1985 72 281 921

68. United Overseas Bank Plaza, Singapore 1992 66 280 919

69. Republic Plaza, Singapore 1995 66 280 919

70. Overseas Union Bank Centre, Singapore 1986 63 280 919

71. Citigroup Center, New York 1977 59 279 915

72. Hong Kong New World Tower, Shanghai 2002 61 278 913

73. Diwang International Commerce Center, Nanning, China 2006 54 276 906

74. Scotia Plaza, Toronto 1989 68 275 902

75. Williams Tower, Houston 1983 64 275 901

76. Moscow, Moscow 2009 73 274 900

77. Wuhan World Trade Tower, Wuhan, China 1998 60 273 896

78. Cullinan North Tower, Hong Kong 2007 68 270 886

79. Cullinan South Tower, Hong Kong 2007 68 270 886

80. Renaissance Tower, Dallas 1975 56 270 886

81. China International Center Tower B, Guangzhou, China 2007 62 270 884

82. Dapeng International Plaza, Guangzhou, China 2006 56 269 883

83. One Luijiazui, Shanghai, China 2008 47 269 883

84. 21st Century Tower, Dubai 2003 55 269 883

85. Naberezhnaya Tower C, Moscow 2007 61 268 881

86. Al Faisaliah Center, Riyadh 2000 30 267 876

87. 900 North Michigan Ave., Chicago 1989 66 265 871

88. Bank of America Corporate Center, Charlotte 1992 60 265 871

89. SunTrust Plaza, Atlanta 1992 60 265 871

90. Al Kazim Tower 1, Dubai, U.A.E 2008 53 265 871

91. Al Kazim Tower 2, Dubai, U.A.E 2008 53 265 871

92. BOCOM Financial Towers, Shanghai 1999 52 265 869

93. 120 Collins Street, Melbourne 1991 52 265 869

94. Triumph Palace, Moscow 2005 57 264 866

95. Tower Palace Three, Tower G, Seoul 2004 73 264 865

96. Trump World Tower, New York 2001 72 262 861

97. Shenzhen Special Zone Daily Tower, Shenzhen, China 1998 48 262 860

98. Water Tower Place, Chicago 1976 74 262 859

99. Grand Gateway Plaza I, Shanghai 2005 52 262 859

100. Grand Gateway Plaza II, Shanghai 2005 52 262 859


NOTES:




Criteria for Inclusion on the List of 100 Tallest Buildings by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat



This data was gathered and/or supplied by members and representatives of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat who represent world leaders in the field of the built environment, including research, industry, and education.



What defines a building (as opposed to a tower)? A "building" is considered to be a structure that is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing purposes. An essential characteristic of a building is that it has floors. Note that towers are NOT included in the list. Although a number of tall buildings on this list have "Tower" in their name—the famous Petronas Towers, for example—none are technically towers.



When does a building appear on the list? When a building is "topped out"—the point of construction when the structure has met its proposed structural top (see height definition below)—the building is officially ranked and is placed on the list.



Height The height of a building is measured from the sidewalk level of the main entrance to the structural top of the building. This includes spires, but does not include television antennas, radio antennas, or flag poles. Height is listed in both meters and feet and is rounded to the nearest integer. This is the official criterion used by the Council in determining ranking.



In many cases, the height of a building is supplied to the Council using only one unit of measure (either feet or meters). Based on the exact value of the unit supplied, the other unit’s value is mathematically calculated, then rounded to the nearest integer. The final determinant in ranking a building’s height is the footage—not meters—because of footage’s smaller (and therefore more precise) incremental value.



Rank Ranking is determined by height to the structural top of the building (see above). If there is a tie, the building with the larger number of stories is ranked higher. If a tie still remains, the building which was completed first is ranked higher. If a tie would still remain, the buildings would be ranked alphabetically.



Year The year in which construction of the building was officially completed. “UC” stands for Under Construction. For a building that is currently under construction to appear on the list it must be “topped out.”





NOTE: When a building is “topped out” (the point of construction when the structure has met its proposed structural top), the building is officially ranked and is placed on the list. UC indicates under construction: although the building has been “topped out,” construction has not been completed. Height is measured from sidewalk level of main entrance to structural top of building. This includes spires, but does not include antennas or flagpoles.

1. The World Trade Center twin towers of New York City ranked fifth and sixth (at 1,368 ft and 1,362 ft) on this list until their destruction on Sept. 11, 2001.

2. A building differs from a tower in that the former is considered to be a structure that is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing purposes. Also, an essential characteristic of a building is that it has floors.

George Walker Bush

George Walker Bush

Born: 7/6/1946


Birthplace: New Haven, Conn.



George Walker Bush was born on July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Conn., the first child of future president George H. W. Bush. In 1948, the family moved to Odessa, Tex., where the senior Bush went to work in the oil business. George W. grew up mainly in Midland, Tex., and Houston, and later attended two of his father's alma maters, Phillips Academy in Andover, Mass., and Yale.



After graduating from Yale with a history degree in 1968, Bush joined the Texas Air National Guard, where he served as a part-time fighter pilot until 1973. After receiving an MBA from Harvard Business School in 1975, he returned to Texas, where he established his own oil and gas business. In 1977 he met and married his wife, Laura Welch, a librarian. The couple has twin daughters, Jenna and Barbara, born in 1981.



Coming from a prominent political family—his grandfather Prescott Bush had been a senator from Connecticut and his father a U.S. congressman and political appointee—George W. had been immersed in politics since childhood. In 1977 he entered the fray himself, unsuccessfully running for U.S. Congress from the West Texas district that included his hometown of Midland.



Following his defeat, Bush returned to the oil business. In 1985, however, oil prices fell sharply, and Bush's company verged on collapse until it was acquired by a Dallas firm. Bush then headed to Washington to become a paid adviser to his father's successful 1988 presidential campaign. After the election, Bush returned to Texas and assembled a group of investors to buy the Texas Rangers.



Bush again entered politics in 1993, running for the Texas governorship. Although he had a tough opponent in the immensely popular incumbent Ann Richards, he created a clear agenda focused on issues such as education and juvenile justice and won with 53% of the vote. He was reelected in 1998, not long before he announced plans to run for president.



During the 2000 campaign, Bush adhered closely to the traditional conservative line, favoring small government, tax cuts, a strong military, and opposing gun control and abortion. His choice of running mate, Dick Cheney, secretary of defense during his father's administration, provided his campaign with seasoned Washington political experience.



With the country in a state of general prosperity, the 2000 election between George W. Bush and Vice President Al Gore was perceived to be one of the least dynamic on issues. As it turned out, the race was one of the closest in the country's history. By early evening on election night, it was apparent that whoever won Florida would win the election. Bush's razor-thin margin of about 1,200 votes prompted an automatic recount. The case ultimately ended up in the U.S. Supreme Court. Bush officially became the president-elect on Dec. 13, after the Supreme Court reversed a decision by the Florida Supreme Court to allow manual recounts of ballots in some Florida counties, contending that such a partial recount violated the Constitution's equal protection and due process guarantees. With Florida in his column, Bush won the presidency with 271 electoral votes, just one more than he needed, although he lost the popular vote by half a million. The divided 5–4 Supreme Court decision generated enormous controversy, with critics asserting that the Supreme Court, and not the electorate, had effectively determined the outcome of the presidential election.



The top item on Bush's domestic agenda—a $1.35 trillion tax cut over 11 years—was swiftly enacted in June 2001. In his first year in office, President Bush also championed an antimissile defense system, meant to intercept long-range missiles lobbed at U.S. shores. Opponents of the plan argued that it was technologically unfeasible and astronomically expensive. Bush's early foreign policy was defined by the rejection of a number of international treaties that the White House felt were detrimental to American interests, including the Kyoto treaty on global warming, the biological weapons convention banning germ warfare, and a treaty to establish an international war-crimes court. Bush also withdrew from the 1972 Antiballistic Missile Treaty, the basis for three decades of nuclear stability with the Soviet Union, but at the same time succeeded in persuading Russia to agree to a landmark treaty that would cut U.S. and Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles by two-thirds over the next decade.



The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on Sept. 11, 2001, irrevocably altered the direction of the Bush presidency; his primary focus became the war on international terrorism. Bush shored up enormous support from the international community to fight terrorism worldwide. On Oct. 7, the U.S. and Britain began air strikes against Afghanistan, after the Taliban government repeatedly refused to surrender Osama bin Laden, the mastermind of the Sept. 11 attacks. The Taliban collapsed on Dec. 9, but despite this outstanding military success, bin Laden remained at large.



National security efforts included creating the Department of Homeland Security, a domestic security cabinet agency that consolidated 20 federal agencies in a massive government reorganization. More controversial was the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act, antiterrorism legislation that presented law enforcement officials with sweeping new powers to conduct searches without warrants, and to detain and deport individuals in secret.



President Bush's broad characterizations of the terrorist threat led him to expand the focus of his foreign policy from al-Qaeda and other terrorist organizations to other regimes hostile to the United States, regardless of their connection to the Sept. 11 attacks. Following the war in Afghanistan, Bush designated Iraq as the primary new threat to American security. He famously labeled Iraq, along with North Korea and Iran, as part of an “axis of evil.” Over the course of 2002, President Bush announced that the U.S. foreign strategy of containment and deterrence was an outdated cold war policy, and introduced the Bush doctrine, which asserted that in an age of terrorism, the U.S. could no longer wait by defensively until a potential threat to its security grew into an actual one—a preemptive strike was called for. In Sept. 2002, Bush addressed the UN, challenging the organization to swiftly enforce its own resolutions against Iraq, or else the U.S. would have no choice but to act on its own. Many world leaders expressed alarm at this shift in U.S. policy, which stressed unilateralism rather than international consensus. The alleged existence of weapons of mass destruction, Iraq's links to terrorism, and Saddam Hussein's despotism and human rights abuses were cited as the casus belli for “regime change.” The UN Security Council unanimously approved a resolution imposing tough new arms inspections on Iraq, but after three months of inspections that resulted in only modest Iraqi cooperation, U.S. patience ran out: on March 19, President Bush declared war on Iraq and U.S. troops, along with their British allies, began bombing Baghdad. By April 9, Baghdad had fallen, and by May 1, combat was officially declared over.



The official phase of the war was swift, but the post-war reconstruction period proved far more difficult. The country was enveloped in violence and chaos and its infrastructure was in ruins. While the Bush administration successfully turned over sovereignty to an interim Iraqi government in June 2004, within months pockets of Iraq were essentially under the control of insurgents. President Bush assured the country that despite these difficulties, the United States would stay the course until Iraq emerged as a free and democratic country. More than a year-and-a-half of searching for Iraq's weapons of mass destruction—one of the prime reasons Bush cited for launching the war—yielded no hard evidence, and the administration and its intelligence agencies came under fire. There were also mounting allegations that the existence of these weapons and their imminent threat to American security was exaggerated or distorted as a pretext to justify the war. The Senate Intelligence Committee's unanimous, bipartisan “Report on Pre-War Intelligence on Iraq,” harshly criticized the CIA: “most of the major key judgments” on Iraq's weapons of mass destruction were “either overstated, or were not supported by, the underlying intelligence report.” The report disputed the CIA's assertions that Iraq was reconstituting its nuclear program and that it had chemical and biological weapons, and also concluded that there was no relationship between al-Qaeda and Saddam Hussein. With the justifications for the war evaporating, the Bush administration began emphasizing that the removal of dictator Saddam Hussein had been grounds enough for waging war, and that the United States was more secure as a result of it.



Critics of the administration's policy in Iraq described it as a distraction from the war on terror, preventing the United States from effectively battling the war on its genuine fronts. Since the start of the U.S. war in Iraq, the two remaining countries in the “axis of evil,” North Korea and Iran, had grown into alarming nuclear threats. The Bush administration's diplomatic efforts made little headway against Iran and North Korea's defiance and evasion.



On the domestic front, President Bush promoted an “ownership society” that would give Americans more control over health care, education, and retirement. In Jan. 2002, he passed the No Child Left Behind Act, a federal program dedicated to improving schools across the country. In June 2003 he signed into law the largest expansion of Medicare since its creation. The law provided prescription drug coverage under Medicare for the first time.



In early 2003, President Bush unveiled a sweeping economic stimulus plan that characteristically centered around tax cuts. The plan, in its original form, would have cut taxes by $670 billion over ten years; Congress approved a $350 billion version. Although all workers were to benefit from the tax plan, it strongly favored two groups: two-parent households with several children and the wealthy—nearly half the proposed tax benefits were reserved for the richest 10% of American taxpayers. Critics of the plan, including fiscally conservative Republicans, argued that it was unsound to offer tax cuts while the country was involved in an expensive war and in the midst of a jobless recovery. The federal budget deficit, according to the nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office, reached a record $412 billion in 2004. The White House countered that the Bush tax cuts had in fact kept the recession remarkably shallow and brief.



The 2004 presidential campaign between the president and Democratic senator John Kerry was one of the most closely followed and heated races in recent history. Terrorism, the war in Iraq, tax cuts, health care, the economy, and the deficit were the major issues. Kerry accused the president of mismanaging the war on Iraq and the fight against terrorism and promised to roll back the Bush tax cuts for the wealthiest Americans. The president accused his opponent of being a “flip-flopper” on issues and of not having the leadership to fight the war on terror. On Nov. 3, President Bush won reelection with 286 electoral votes and 51% of the popular vote. Moral values and fighting terrorism were cited as the two main issues that won the president his second term.



In the first year of his second term, Bush's priority was the restructuring of Social Security, but despite months of campaigning, the president failed to convince the electorate that the program was in need of a major overhaul. Legislative accomplishments included the passage of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), an energy bill, which did not, however, address Americans' growing concern over high fuel prices.



Iraq's continued insurgency, lack of political stability, and the acknowledgment that only a small number of Iraqi forces were capable of replacing American troops stationed in the country led to increased domestic discontent. In the face of growing American casualties and the absence of a clear strategy for winning the protracted war beyond “staying the course,” the president's approval ratings plummeted in 2005. In early September, the delayed and inept handling of Hurricane Katrina's emergency relief efforts led to widespread criticism of the Bush administration, even among its Republican base. Trust in the president's ability to lead the country during a crisis had been a central factor in his reelection, but two-thirds of Americans considered his response to Katrina inadequate. In 2005 and 2006, Bush appointed two solid conservatives to the Supreme Court: Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito.



In 2005 it was disclosed that President Bush had secretly authorized the National Security Agency to wiretap domestic calls without obtaining legally required warrants. Controversy concerning the expansion of presidential powers also arose when it was revealed that Bush has used “signing statements” to indicate that he would not comply with more than 800 provisions of 100-plus signed laws. The most publicized of these signing statements was Bush's exception to a provision banning “cruel, inhumane, and degrading treatment” of prisoners in American custody. In June 2006, the Supreme Court issued the most significant ruling on the limitations of presidential powers in decades, stating in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, that the Bush administration's failure to obtain Congressional approval for special military tribunals to try terrorist detainees rendered the tribunals unconstitutional, and that they also violated both the Uniform Code of Military Justice and the Geneva Conventions.



As security in Iraq deteriorated in 2006 and reconstruction efforts foundered, the increasingly unpopular war became the president's greatest liability. November 2006 mid-term elections led to a seismic shift in the political landscape, with Democrats gaining control over the House of Representatives and the Senate for the first time in twelve years. A day after the election, President Bush, acknowledging that his party had taken a “thumping,” announced the resignation of Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, whose intransigent Iraq policies had made him the bete noir of Democrats and many Republicans. In December, the bipartisan report by the Iraq Study Group, led by former secretary of state James Baker and former Democratic congressman Lee Hamilton, concluded that “the situation in Iraq is grave and deteriorating” and “U.S. forces seem to be caught in a mission that has no foreseeable end.” The report's 79 recommendations included reaching out diplomatically to Iran and Syria and having the U.S. military intensify its efforts to train Iraqi troops. The report heightened the debate over the U.S. role in Iraq, but President Bush kept his distance from it, indicating that he would wait until Jan. 2007 before announcing a new Iraq strategy.

Shabana Azmi

Shabana Azmi

Born on the 18th of September in the year 1950 in New Delhi, Shabana Azmi is one of the most leading actresses to have graced the screens of Bollywood. She has worked in a number of films, which has brought her lot of praise and appreciation. She has played roles of different genre and been able to adapt very nicely according to the need of the role. Well, in this article, we will present you with the biography of Indian actress Shabana Azmi.

Early life :

She is a fabulous Muslim actress, who was born to the Azmi family. Her father Kaifi Azmi was a famous Indian Urdu poet as well as writer and her mother Shaukat was a renowned stage actress. Her brother Baba Azmi is a cinematographer. Thus, the entire family has been actively involved in the field of fine arts. They have always had vast social circles and thus, Shabana has always seen lot of people congregating in their house. She did her graduation in Psychology from St. Xavier's College, Mumbai. Thereafter, she took up a course in Acting at the Film and Television Institute of India (FTII), Pune. Read on to know the complete life history of Shabana Azmi.



Career :

The maiden movie of Shabana was an art movie 'Faalsa'. Though, it was her first movie but got released after Shyam Benegal's movie Ankur. She was given a very different kind of role to play in this film and she did it a fabulous job. The film turned out to be a superhit and even won the National award. Her performance in both the films was widely appreciated.



She won the national awards for three consecutive years from 1983 to 1985 for her notable work in the films Arth, Khandhar and Paar. She has always given an outstanding performance, because she has the caliber to very well get into the character, thus making it appear like a real life portrayal. She has worked in more than hundred films demanding different kind of attitude and skills. Shabana is an amazing actress who has truly proved her talent and versatility.



Notable Works of Shabana Azmi :

Godmother

Earth

Khandhar

Paar

Masoom

Arth

Sparsh

Ankur

Mandi

15 Park Avenue

Madame Sousatzka

The Bengali Night



Social Activist :

Well, Shabana Azmi is not just a wonderful actress, but a great social activist. She has made an incredible contribution in raising voice against unjust and inequality. She has also been actively involved in fighting AIDS. She has brought in notice a number of social issues. Initially, her efforts for the social welfare were considered to be a publicity gimmick. But, her strong determination and hard work proved people that she is genuinely concerned and not trying to draw people's attention to come into limelight. She has taken a keen interest in fighting for issues like communalism. She even participated in the demonstrations and marches for advocating communal harmony.



Awards Won :

National Film Awards (6 times)

Filmfare Awards (4 times)

Padma Shri

Gandhi Foundation International Peace Award for her commendable work for the slum dwellers living in Mumbai.

Rekha

Rekha

Rekha was born as Bhanurekha Ganesan on the 10th of October in 1954 in Chennai. She is one of the most brilliant as well gorgeous actresses of Bollywood. Well, in this article, we will present you with the biography of Indian actress Rekha.

Early life :

Acting is in her blood. Her father Gemini Ganesan was a well known Tamil actor and her mother Pushpavalli was a Telugu actress. It is said that her parents did not tie wedding knots. Infact, people are of the say that, when Rekha was born, her father didn't even make the declaration of his paternity. It was in the early 1970s that, she established her foot in the Indian film industry. To know the complete life history of Rekha, read on.



She is believed to have had several relationships. She became the hottest topic of gossip. All the magazines and newspapers were filled with rumors of Rekha's relationship with Bollywood stars Jeetendra, Vinod Mehra, Kiran Kumar, and Amitabh Bachchan. But, none of the relationships worked out and she finally got married to a Delhi based businessman Mukesh Aggarwal in the year 1990. However, he committed suicide the next year in 1991.



Film Career :

Rekha made her first public appearance as a child artist in the Telugu film Rangula Ratnam (1966). Goadalli CID 999, a Kannada film was her first film in which she played the lead role of heroine. She worked in a number of Telugu, Kannada and Hindi films. Her Hindi film Sawan Bhadon was a major hit in the box office. This film brought her stardom overnight. After that, she was offered plenty of roles, but most of the roles demanded her to be portrayed as a glamour girl.



She did a number of films, some of which were very successful. To name a few, we have Kahani Kismat Ki, Raampur Ka Lakshman, and Pran Jaaye Par Vachan Na Jaaye. She got her first serious role in 1976, when she was signed for 'Do Anjaane' with Amitabh Bachchan. After that, she was offered lot of challenging roles of different genre and she took up the challenge and proved her worth. Muqaddar Ka Sikandar brought a lot of name and fame. Then, she kept climbing the ladders of success.



Awards Won :

Filmfare Best Actress Award

National Film Award for Best Actress

Filmfare Best Actress Award

Star Screen Award Best Villain

Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award

Zee Cine Award for Lifetime Achievement

Dinanath Mangeshkar Award

Role Model Award by MAX Stardust

Sony Golden Glory Award

Maha Style Icon of the Year



Notable Works of Rekha :

Khubsoorat

Ghar

Khoon bhari maang

Silsila

Umrao Jaan

Muqaddar Ka Sikandar

Mujhe Insaaf Chaahiye

Utsav

Basera

Ijaazat

VIKRAMDITYA

Who Is 'The Creator Of An Era'?


We must have some way of keeping count of the years, mustn't we? Otherwise, when we think of an incident, how can we explain when it happened?



Swami Vivekananda was born in 1863, Sir C.V. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930, and India achieved independence in 1947. In this way we indicate when some thing happened (in 1863, in 1930, in 1947 and so on). If we could not do this, how difficult it would have bean to talk about any thing?



Generally we follow the Christian era. 1947 means one thousand and nine hundred and forty seven years after the birth of Christ. (The Christian Era was followed only by the Christians of the West. It came to us with the dawn (British rule in India). This means Jesus Christ was the creator of an era.



The Government of India now follows the Shalivahana Shaka or Era. It started 78 years after the Christian Era. It takes its name from King Shalivahana. He was the creator of an era. If the people of a nation keep count of years from the year of the birth or the coronation of a great man, it is clear that, that man must have been really very great.

Nargis

Nargis

Nargis (June 1, 1929 - May 3, 1981) was a fabulous actress, whose performance in the film 'Mother India' was widely appreciated. The film was nominated for Oscars. She was born as Fatima Rashid to the Mohyal Brahmin. She was the daughter Allahabad-based singer, Jaddanbai and Uttamchand Mohanchand. Well, in this article, we will provide you with the biography of Indian actress Nargis.

The father of Nargis was actively involved in Indian cinema. He was an all rounder as in singer, dancer, director, composer and actor. His dear daughter Nargis entered into the Indian films at a very young age. Her debut film was Talashe Haq that was released in the year 1935. She was popularly known as "Baby Nargis". An interesting thing about Nargis was her stage name "Narcissus", which means a flower. To know the complete life history of Nargis, read on…



She earned lot of name and fame for her later movies, in which she played the adult roles. She worked in many Hindi-Urdu movies of the 1950s, out of which "Andaaz" and "Awaara" were the biggest hits. She was often starred opposite to the renowned Bollywood star Raj Kapoor. It is also said that, Raj Kapoor had a love interest in her. But, there was nothing serious between them, as Raj Kapoor did not make any attempt to divorce his wife.



While shooting for the film Mother India, Sunil Dutt sent a proposal for marriage and Nargis accepted it. Eventually, she got married to Sunil Dutt, a famous Indian Bollywood actor on March 11, 1958. She gave birth to three children, namely Sanjay, Anju, and Priya. Nargis passes away in the year 1981, as she was suffering from pancreatic cancer.



Achievements & Recognitions :

Filmfare Best Actress Award for Mother India in 1957

National Film Award for best actress in 1968

Best Artists of the Millennium award by Hero Honda in 2001



Notable works of Nargis Dutt :

Raat Aur Din

Adalat

Ghar Sansar

Lajwanti

Mother India

Pardesi

Chori Chori

Jagte Raho

Shree 420

Angarey

Aah

Dhoon

Paapi

Shikast

Amber

Anhonee

Ashiana

Bewafa

Sheesha

Awaara

Deedar

Hulchul

Pyar Ki Baaten

Saagar

Aadhi Raat

Babul

Madhubala

Madhubala

Madhubala (February 14, 1933 - February 23, 1969) is one of the most gorgeous actresses to have graced the screens of Bollywood. She has made an incredible contribution to the Indian film industry. Well, in this article, we will present you with the biography of Indian actress Madhubala. We will also provide you with information on the works of Madhubala.

Early life :

Born as Mumtaz Jehan Begum Dehlavi on the February 14, 1933, Madhubala was the fifth child of the Pashtun Muslim family. A Muslim holy man had once predicted that this girl would make a name for herself and become a prominent personality. She would earn loads of wealth and fortune, but unfortunately won't be able to enjoy a happy life and die at a very young age. To know the complete life history of Madhubala, read on…



Madhubala is an epitome of beauty, who had an unbeatable charm. She is admired for her looks and work even by the present day generations. Madhubala's father named Ataullah Khan, on hearing the words of the Muslim holy man, planned to migrate to Bombay (now Mumbai) for leading a better life. Things were not smooth and the family had to struggle a lot for a year. Madhubala entered into the Indian film industry as a child artist. At that time, she was known as Baby Mumtaz.



Early work :

Mumtaz gave a fabulous performance in her maiden film Basant (1942). Devika Rani was amazed by her performance and talent and changed her name to Madhubala. In the movie Jwar Bhata (1944), she was to play the lead role with Dilip Kumar. But, things did not materialize and she could not work in the film. But, this gave her an opportunity to know Dilip Kumar.



Major Break :

Madhubala got a major break, when she was signed opposite to Raj Kapoor in Kidar Sharma's film 'Neel Kamal' (1947). She was more often referred to as the "Venus of the Screen". Within a span of two years, she established her career and came into limelight. She constantly kept climbing the ladders of success and her films were super hit. Mughal-e-Azam turned out to be the biggest hit. In her short lifetime, she worked in seventy films.



Relationship with Dilip Kumar

Madhubala and Dilip Kumar got an opportunity to get along with each other on the set of Jwar Bhatta (1944). When they worked together in Mughal-e-Azam for a long period of nine years, Madhubala started having hots for him. It is even said that, Madhubala had once sent him a note accompanied by a flower. Dilip Kumar reacted in a favorable manner and they got engaged with each other. Madhubala was very serious about marrying him, but he did not pay much of attention on her and chose someone else for marriage. Later, Madhubala got married to Kishore Kumar, a well known name of the Indian film industry.



Death :

In a routine check up, it was discovered that Madhubala had a hole in her heart. Her ailment was kept secretive from the film industry. The doctors refused to operate on her, as there was virtually no hope of survival. The doctors said that even if the operation is successful, she won't live for more than a year. It was at that point of time that, she realized that she shouldn't have married Kishore Kumar. She passed away on the February 23, 1969.



Works of Madhubala :

Baghdad Ka Chor

Shaheed-E-Mohabbat

Basant

Mumtaz Mahal

Dhanna Bhagat

Parai Aag

Lal Dupatta

Amar Prem

Neki Aur Badi

Imtihaan

Pardes

Beqasoor

Khazana

Sangdil

Armaan

Shirin Farhad

Ek Saal

Baghi Sipahi

Barsaat Ki Raat

Sharabi

Jwala

Mughal-E-Azam

Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi (1917-1984) was the only child of Kamla and Jawaharlal Nehru. She spent part of her childhood in Allahabad, where the Nehrus had their family residence, and part in Switzerland, where her mother Kamla convalesced from her periodic illnesses. She received her college education at Somerville College, Oxford. A famous photograph from her childhood shows her sitting by the bedside of Mahatma Gandhi, as he recovered from one of his fasts; and though she was not actively involved in the freedom struggle, she came to know the entire Indian political leadership. After India's attainment of independence, and the ascendancy of Jawaharlal Nehru, now a widower, to the office of the Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi managed the official residence of her father, and accompanied him on his numerous foreign trips. She had been married in 1942 to Feroze Gandhi, who rose to some eminence as a parliamentarian and politician of integrity but found himself disliked by his more famous father-in-law, but Feroze died in 1960 before he could consolidate his own political forces.

In 1964, the year of her father's death, Indira Gandhi was for the first time elected to Parliament, and she was Minister of Information and Broadcasting in the government of Lal Bahadur Shastri, who died unexpectedly of a heart attack less than two years after assuming office. The numerous contenders for the position of the Prime Ministership, unable to agree among themselves, picked Indira Gandhi as a compromise candidate, and each thought that she would be easily manipulable. But Indira Gandhi showed extraordinary political skills and tenacity and elbowed the Congress dons -- Kamaraj, Morarji Desai, and others -- out of power. She held the office of the Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. She was riding the crest of popularity after India's triumph in the war of 1971 against Pakistan, and the explosion of a nuclear device in 1974 helped to enhance her reputation among middle-class Indians as a tough and shrewd political leader. However, by 1973, Delhi and north India were rocked by demonstrations angry at high inflation, the poor state of the economy, rampant corruption, and the poor standards of living. In June 1975, the High Court of Allahabad found her guilty of using illegal practices during the last election campaign, and ordered her to vacate her seat. There were demands for her resignation.



Mrs. Gandhi's response was to declare a state of emergency, under which her political foes were imprisoned, constitutional rights abrogated, and the press placed under strict censorship. Meanwhile, the younger of her two sons, Sanjay Gandhi, started to run the country as though it were his personal fiefdom, and earned the fierce hatred of many whom his policies had victimized. He ordered the removal of slum dwellings, and in an attempt to curb India's growing population, initiated a highly resented program of forced sterilization. In early 1977, confident that she had debilitated her opposition, Mrs. Gandhi called for fresh elections, and found herself trounced by a newly formed coalition of several political parties. Her Congress party lost badly at the polls. Many declared that she was a spent force; but, three years later, she was to return as Prime Minister of India. The same year, however, her son Sanjay was killed in an airplane crash.



In the second, post-Emergency, period of her Prime Ministership, Indira Gandhi was preoccupied by efforts to resolve the political problems in the state of Punjab. In her attempt to crush the secessionist movement of Sikh militants, led by Jarnail Singh Bindranwale, she ordered an assault upon the holiest Sikh shrine in Amritsar, called the "Golden Temple". It is here that Bindranwale and his armed supporters had holed up, and it is from the Golden Temple that they waged their campaign of terrorism not merely against the Government, but against moderate Sikhs and Hindus. "Operation Bluestar", waged in June 1984, led to the death of Bindranwale, and the Golden Temple was stripped clean of Sikh terrorists; however, the Golden Temple was damaged, and Mrs. Gandhi earned the undying hatred of Sikhs who bitterly resented the desacralization of their sacred space. In November of the same year, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, at her residence, by two of her own Sikh bodyguards, who claimed to be avenging the insult heaped upon the Sikh nation.



Mrs. Gandhi acquired a formidable international reputation as a "statesman", and there is no doubt that she was extraordinarily skilled in politics. She was prone, like many other politicians, to thrive on slogans, and one -- Garibi Hatao, "Remove Poverty" -- became the rallying cry for one of her election campaigns. She had an authoritarian streak, and though a cultured woman, rarely tolerated dissent; and she did, in many respects, irreparable harm to Indian democracy. Apart from her infamous imposition of the internal emergency, the use of the army to resolve internal disputes greatly increased in her time; and she encouraged a culture of sycophancy and nepotism. At her death, her older son, Rajiv Gandhi, was sworn in as head of the Congress party and Prime Minister.

Har Gobind Khorana

Har Gobind Khorana

Born - 9 January 1922

Achievements - Har Gobind Khorana is an American molecular biologist, who was born to an Indian Punjabi couple. For his work on the interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year 1968.



Har Gobind Khorana is an American molecular biologist born on 9 January 1922 to an Indian Punjabi couple. For his work on the interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year 1968. This award was, however, also shared by Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg. The very same year, he received another award 'Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize' along with Nirenberg that was presented to them by the Columbia University.



Read this biography to learn more about Har Gobind Khorana, who became a citizen of the United States of America in the year 1966. In present times, he's residing at Cambridge in Massachusetts, United States as a part of the MIT Chemistry faculty. Har Gobind Khorana was also the first to produce oligonucleotides, which is chains of nucleotides. He was also the first person to segregate DNA ligase, an enzyme that connects sections of DNA together.



These custom-designed portions of artificial genes are extensively used in biology labs for sequencing, cloning and engineering new plants and animals. This invention by Dr. Khorana has become automated and commercialized so that anyone now can order a synthetic gene from any of a number of companies. Thus, this is the history of the life of Dr Har Gobind Khorana as a biologist.

Meghnad Saha Biography

Meghnad Saha Biography

Born: October 6, 1893

Died: February 16, 1956

Achievements: Made outstanding contribution to the field of Astrophysics. He put forward an "ionization formula" which explained the presence of the spectral lines.



Meghnad Saha was an outstanding Indian scientist. He made remarkable contribution to the field of Astrophysics.



Meghnad Saha was born on October 6, 1893 in Sheoratali, a village in the District of Dacca, now in Bangladesh. He was the fifth child of his parents, Sri Jagannath Saha and Smt. Bhubaneshwari Devi. His father was a grocer in the village. Meghnad Saha had his early schooling in the primary school of the village. As his family could hardly able to make both ends meet, Meghnad Saha managed to pursue his schooling only due to the generosity of a local medical practitioner, Ananta Kumar Das, who provided him with boarding and lodging in his house.



In 1905, British Government took the decision of partition of Bengal. There was great political unrest in Bengal as popular opinion was against the partition. Sir Bampfylde Fuller was governor of East Bengal at that time. One day he came to visit the Collegiate school. Meghnad Saha along with other students boycotted his visit. As a result he was suspended from the school and his scholarship was terminated. He took admission in the Kishorilal Jubili School and passed the Entrance Examination of the Calcutta University in 1909, standing first among the student from East Bengal obtaining the highest marks in languages (English, Bengali and Sanskrit combined) and in Mathematics. In 1911, he ranked third in the ISc exam while the first position went to another great scientist Satyendranath Bose.



Meghnad Saha took admission in Presidency College Calcutta. In 1913 he graduated from Presidency College with Mathematics major and got the second rank in the University of Calcutta while the first one was taken by S.N. Bose. In 1915, both S.N.Bose and Meghnad Saha ranked first in M.Sc. exam, Meghnad Saha in Applied Mathematics and S.N. Bose in Pure Mathematics.



While studying in Presidency College, Meghnad got involved with Anushilan Samiti to take part in freedom fighting movement. He also came in contact with nationalists like Subhash Chandra Bose and Rajendra Prasad.



In 1917, Meghnad Saha joined as lecturer at the newly opened University College of Science in Calcutta. He taught Quantum Physics. Along with S.N. Bose, he translated the papers published in German by Einstein and Minkowski on relativity into English versions. In 1919, American Astrophysical Journal published - "On Selective Radiation Pressure and it's application" - a research paper by Meghnad Saha. He put forward an "ionization formula" which explained the presence of the spectral lines. The formula proved to be a breakthrough in astrophysics. He went abroad and stayed for two years. He spent time in research at Imperial College, London and at a research laboratory in Germany. In 1927, Meghnad Saha was elected as a fellow of London's Royal Society.



Meghnad Saha moved to Allahabad and in 1932 Uttar Pradesh Academy of Science was established. He returned to Science College, Calcutta in 1938. During this time Saha got interested in Nuclear Physics. In 1947, he established Institute of Nuclear Physics which later was named after him as Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics. He took the first effort to include Nuclear Physics in the curriculum of higher studies of science. Having seen cyclotrons used for research in nuclear physics abroad, he ordered one to be installed in the institute. In 1950, India had its first cyclotron in operation.



In 1952 he stood as an independent candidate for Parliament and was elected by a wide margin. He died on February 16, 1956 due to a heart attack.

Satyendra Nath Bose Biography

Satyendra Nath Bose Biography

Born: January 1, 1894

Died: February 4, 1974

Achievements: Famous for "Bose-Einstein Theory". A subatomic particle Boson has been named after him. Honored with "Padma Bhushan".



Satyendra Nath Bose was an outstanding Indian physicist. He is known for his work in Quantum Physics. He is famous for "Bose-Einstein Theory" and a kind of particle in atom has been named after his name as Boson.



Satyendranath Bose was born on January 1, 1894 in Calcutta. His father Surendranath Bose was employed in the Engineering Department of the East India Railway. Satyendranath was the eldest of his seven children.



Satyendra Nath Bose had his schooling from Hindu High School in Calcutta. He was a brilliant student. He passed the ISc in 1911 from the Presidency College, Calcutta securing the first position. Satyendra Nath Bose did his BSc in Mathematics from the Presidency College in 1913 and MSc in Mixed Mathematics in 1915 from the same college. He topped the university in BSc. and MSc. Exams.



In 1916, the Calcutta University started M.Sc. classes in Modern Mathematics and Modern Physics. S.N. Bose started his career in 1916 as a Lecturer in Physics in Calcutta University. He served here from 1916 to 1921. He joined the newly established Dhaka University in 1921 as a Reader in the Department of Physics. In 1924, Satyendra Nath Bose published an article titled Max Planck's Law and Light Quantum Hypothesis. This article was sent to Albert Einstein. Einstein appreciated it so much that he himself translated it into German and sent it for publication to a famous periodical in Germany - 'Zeitschrift fur Physik'. The hypothesis received a great attention and was highly appreciated by the scientists. It became famous to the scientists as 'Bose-Einstein Theory'.



In 1926, Satyendra Nath Bose became a Professor of Physics in Dhaka University. Though he had not completed his doctorate till then, he was appointed as professor on Einstein's recommendation. In 1929 Satyendranath Bose was elected chairman of the Physics of the Indian Science Congress and in 1944 elected full chairman of the Congress. In 1945, he was appointed as Khaira Professor of Physics in Calcutta University. He retired from Calcutta University in 1956. The University honored him on his retirement by appointing him as Emeritus Professor. Later he became the Vice Chancellor of the Viswabharati University. In 1958, he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, London.



Satyendra Nath Bose was honored with 'Padmabhusan' by the Indian Government in recognition of his outstanding achievement. He died in Kolkata on February 4, 1974.

Jagdish Chandra Bose Biography

Jagdish Chandra Bose Biography

Born:  November 30, 1858

Died:  November 23, 1937

Achievements:  He was the first to prove that plants too have feelings. He invented wireless telegraphy a year before Marconi patented his invention.



Jagdish Chandra Bose was an eminent Indian scientist. He was the first to prove that plants and metals too have feelings.



Jagdish Chandra Bose was born on November 30, 1858 in Mymensingh (now in Bangladesh). His father Bhagabanchandra Bose was a Deputy Magistrate. Jagadish Chandra Bose had his early education in village school in Bengal medium. In 1869, Jagadish Chandra Bose was sent to Calcutta to learn English and was educated at St.Xavier's School and College. He was a brilliant student. He passed the B.A. in physical sciences in 1879.



In 1880, Jagdishchandra Bose went to England. He studied medicine at London University, England, for a year but gave it up because of his own ill health. Within a year he moved to Cambridge to take up a scholarship to study Natural Science at Christ's College Cambridge. In 1885, he returned from abroad with a B.Sc. degree and Natural Science Tripos (a special course of study at Cambridge).



After his return Jagadish Chandra Bose, was offered lectureship at Presidency College, Calcutta on a salary half that of his English colleagues. He accepted the job but refused to draw his salary in protest. After three years the college ultimately conceded his demand and Jagdish Chandra Bose was paid full salary from the date he joined the college. As a teacher Jagdish Chandra Bose was very popular and engaged the interest of his students by making extensive use of scientific demonstrations. Many of his students at the Presidency College were destined to become famous in their own right. These included Satyendra Nath Bose and Meghnad Saha.



In 1894, Jagadish Chandra Bose decided to devote himself to pure research. He converted a small enclosure adjoining a bathroom in the Presidency College into a laboratory. He carried out experiments involving refraction, diffraction and polarization. It would not be wrong to call him as the inventor of wireless telegraphy. In 1895, a year before Guglielmo Marconi patented this invention, he had demonstrated its functioning in public.



Jagdish Chandra Bose later switched from physics to the study of metals and then plants. He fabricated a highly sensitive "coherer", the device that detects radio waves. He found that the sensitivity of the coherer decreased when it was used continuously for a long period and it regained its sensitivity when he gave the device some rest. He thus concluded that metals have feelings and memory.



Jagdish Chandra Bose showed experimentally plants too have life. He invented an instrument to record the pulse of plants and connected it to a plant. The plant, with its roots, was carefully picked up and dipped up to its stem in a vessel containing bromide, a poison. The plant's pulse beat, which the instrument recorded as a steady to-and-fro movement like the pendulum of a clock, began to grow unsteady. Soon, the spot vibrated violently and then came to a sudden stop. The plant had died because of poison.



Although Jagdish Chandra Bose did invaluable work in Science, his work was recognized in the country only when the Western world recognized its importance. He founded the Bose Institute at Calcutta, devoted mainly to the study of plants. Today, the Institute carries research on other fields too.



Jagdish Chandra Bose died on November 23, 1937.

APJ Abdul Kalam

APJ Abdul Kalam

Born - 15 October 1931

Achievements - This eminent scientist and engineer has also served as the 11th President of India from the period 2002 to 2007. APJ Abdul Kalam is a man of vision, who is always full of ideas aimed at the development of the country. He firmly believes that India needs to play a more assertive role in international relations.



Apart from being a notable scientist and engineer, Dr APJ Abdul Kalam served as the 11th President of India from the period 2002 to 2007. He is a man of vision, who is always full of ideas aimed at the development of the country and is also often also referred to as the Missile Man of India. People loved and respected Dr APJ Abdul Kalam so much during his tenure as President that was popularly called the People's President. Read more about the biography of Dr APJ Abdul Kalam here.



APJ Abdul Kalam was born on 15 October 1931 at the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu and received honorary doctorates from about 30 universities globally. In the year 1981, the Government of India presented him the nation's highest civilian honor, the Padma Bhushan and then again, the Padma Vibhushan in 1990 and the Bharat Ratna in 1997. Before Kalam, there have been only two presidents - Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Zakir Hussain - to have received the Bharat Ratna before bring appointed to the highest office in India.



Read on about the life history of Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, who's also the first scientist and bachelor to occupy the seat of the Rashtrapati Bhavan. His perspectives on important topics have been enunciated by him in the book 'India 2020'. It highlights the action plans that will help develop the country into a knowledge superpower by the time 2020. One thing for which he received ample kudos is his unambiguous statement that India needs to play a more assertive role in international relations.



And Dr APJ Abdul Kalam regards his work on India's nuclear weapons program as a way to assert India's place as a future superpower. Even during his tenure as President, APJ Kalam took avid interest in the spheres of India's science and technology. He has even put forward a project plan for establishing bio-implants. He is also an ardent advocate of open source software over proprietary solutions to churn out more profits in the field of information technology in India.

Vikram Sarabhai Biography

Vikram Sarabhai Biography

Born: August 12, 1919

Died: December 31,1971

Achievements: Considered the Father of the Indian space program; instrumental in establishing the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad in November 1947; was Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission. He along with other Ahmedabad-based industrialists played a major role in the creation of the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.



Vikram Sarabhai was one of the greatest scientists of India. He is considered as the Father of the Indian space program. Apart from being a scientist, he was a rare combination of an innovator, industrialist and visionary.



Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was born on August 12, 1919 at Ahmedabad in an affluent family of progressive industrialists. He was one of eight children of Ambalal and Sarla Devi. He had his early education in a private school, “Retreat” run by his parents on Montessori lines. Some of the great men of India such as Gurudev Rabindranath, J. Krishna Murthi, Motilal Nehru, V. S. Shrinivasa Shastri, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, Maulana Azad, C. F. Andrews, C. V. Raman et al. used to stay with the Sarabhai family when they visited Ahmedabad. Mahatma Gandhi also once stayed at their house while recovering from an illness. Visits by such great men greatly influenced Vikram Sarabhai.



After his matriculation, Vikram Sarabhai proceeded to Cambridge for his college education and took the tripods degree from St. John's college in 1940. When World War II began, he returned home and joined as a research scholar under Sir C. V. Raman at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore His interest in solar physics and cosmic ray led him to set up many observation stations around the country. He built the necessary equipment with which he took measurements at Bangalore, Poona and the Himalayas. He returned to Cambridge in 1945 and completed his Ph.D in 1947.



Vikram Sarabhai was instrumental in establishing the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad in November 1947. The laboratory was established in a few rooms in M.G. Science Institute of the Ahmedabad Education Society, which was founded by his parents. Subsequently, it got support from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Department of Atomic Energy.



Vikram Sarabhai did research on the time variations of cosmic rays and concluded that meteorological effects could not entirely affect the observed daily variations of cosmic rays; further, the residual variations were wide and global and these were related to variations in solar activity. Vikram Sarabhai visualized a new field of research opening up in solar and interplanetary Physics.



The year 1957-1958 was designated as International Geo-physical year (IGY). The Indian program for the IGY had been one of the most significant ventures of Sarabhai. It exposed him to the new vistas of space science with the launching in 1957 of Sputnik-I. Subsequently, the Indian National Committee for Space Research was created, of which Vikram Sarabhai became Chairman.



With active support from Homi Bhabha, Vikram Sarabhai, set up the first Rocket Launching station (TERLS) in the country at Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram on the Arabian Coast, as Thumba is very close to the Equator. The first rocket with sodium vapour payload was launched on November 21, 1963. In 1965, the UN General Assembly gave recognition to TERLS as an international facility.



After the sudden death of Homi Bhabha in an air crash, Vikram Sarabhai was appointed Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission in May 1966. He wanted the practical application of science to reach the common man. He decided to acquire competence in advance technology for the solution of country’s problems based on technical and economic evaluation of its real resources. He initiated India’s space programme, which today is renowned all over the world.



Dr. Vikram Sarabhai was awarded with Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Medal in 1962 and Padma Bhushan in 1966. Vikram Sarabhai passed away in his sleep on December 31,1971.

Dadabhai Naoroji Biography

Dadabhai Naoroji Biography

Born: September 4, 1825

Died: June 30, 1917

Achievements: First Indian to become a professor of the college; instrumental in the establishment of the Indian National Congress; was President of the Indian National Congress thrice; the Congress' demand for swaraj (self-rule) was first expressed publicly by him in his presidential address in 1906



Dadabhai Naoroji is fondly called as the "Grand Old Man of India". He is viewed as the architect who laid the foundation of the Indian freedom struggle.



Dadabhai Naoroji was born in a poor Parsi family in Bombay on September 4, 1825. His father, Naoroji Palanji Dordi, died when Dadabhai Naoroji was only four years old. He was raised by her mother Maneckbai who despite being illiterate herself ensured that Dadabhai Naoroji got best English education possible. As a student Dada Bhai Naoroji was very good in Mathematics and English. He studied at Elphinstone Institution, Bombay and on completion of his education he was appointed the Head Native Assistant Master at the Elphinstone Institution. Dadabhai Naoroji became a professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Elphinstone Institution at the age of 27. He was the first Indian to become a professor of the college.



Dadabhai Nauroji entered the political fray in 1852. He strongly opposed the renewal of lease to the East India Company in 1853. He sent petitions to the English government in this regard. But the British government ignored his pleas and renewed the lease. Dadabhai Naoroji felt that the British misrule of India was because of ignorance of the Indian people. He set up the Gyan Prasarak Mandali (Society for Promotion of Knowledge) for the education of adult menfolk. He wrote several petitions to Governors and Viceroys regarding India's problems. Ultimately, he felt that the British people and the British Parliament must be made aware of India's plight. In 1855, at the age of 30 he sailed for England.



In England, Dadabhai Naoroji joined several learned societies, delivered many speeches and wrote articles on the plight of India. He founded the East Indian Association on December 1st, 1866. The association was comprised of high-ranking officers from India and people who had access to Members of the British Parliament. Dadabhai Naoroji was elected to the British Parliament in 1892 from Central Finsbury as the Liberal party candidate. He got a resolution passed in British Parliament for holding preliminary examinations for the I.C.S. in India and England simultaneously. He also got the Wiley Commission, the royal commission on India expenditure, to acknowledge the need for even distribution of administrative and military expenditure between India and England.



Dadabhai Naoroji was instrumental in the establishment of the Indian National Congress founded by A.O. Hume in 1885. Thrice he was elected to the post of the President of the Indian National Congress, in 1886, 1893 and in 1906. During his third term, he prevented a split between moderates and extremists in the party. The Congress' demand for swaraj (self-rule) was first expressed publicly by him in his presidential address in 1906. Dadabhai Naoroji believed in non-violent and constitutional methods of protest. He died at the age of 92 on June 30, 1917.

Madam Cama

Madam Cama

A prominent personality of the Indian Nationalist Movement, she was born as Bhikaiji Rustom Cama on 24th September, 1861 to a Parsi family in Bombay (now Mumbai). Well, we are talking about none other than Madam Cama, who is a well known freedom fighter. She came from a pretty well off family and her father Sorabji Framji Patel was a powerful member of the Parsi community. In this article, we will present you with the biography of Madame Cama.

Bhikaji took education from Alexandra Native Girl's English Institution. From the very beginning, she was a very sincere child. She always admired the personalities of the Nationalist Movement. On the 3rd of August in the year 1885, she tied her wedding knots with Rustom Cama, an affluent pro-British lawyer. She did not enjoy her married life and spent most of her time performing altruistic activities. Read on to know the complete life history of Madam Bhikaji Rustom Cama.



In the year 1896, the Bombay presidency was hit by a natural calamity, which had adverse effects on the city. Bhikaji was instrumental in the activities undertaken to provide assistance to the afflicted people. While rescuing other people and inoculating them, she herself became a victim of the infection. She became very weak, but somehow managed to survive. In the year 1902, she went to Europe for subsequent medical care and convalescence.



During her stay in London, she got a message that her return to India can take place subject to the promise that she would not participate in the Nationalist Movement. She refused to make such a promise and remained in exile in Europe. She died in the Parsi General hospital in Bombay (now Mumbai) in the year 1936. While Madam Cama was in London, she served as the private secretary to Dadabhai Naoroji, who was the first Asian to be elected to the British House of Commons.



When Bhikaji Cama was in Paris, she happened to come across a number of notable leaders of the Indian Nationalist Movement. In Holland, they secretly published and circulated the revolutionary literature for the Nationalist Movement. During her stay in France, the British Raj authorities requested her extradition, but the French Government did not show their willingness and refused to cooperate. In return, the Britishers confiscated Madame Cama's legacy.


Bhikaji Cama has always been actively involved in fighting for gender equality. On August 22, 1907, she raised the flag for India's Independence at the International Socialist Conference in Stuttgart, Germany. There are many cities in India that have streets and places being named after Bhikaiji Cama. On 26th January 1962, the Indian Posts and Telegraphs Department issued a stamp to acknowledge her work and give her honor. The Indian Coast Guard consists of a ship that has been named after her.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was born on May 28, 1883 into a family of jagirdars (landlords) in the village of Bhagpur near Nasik. Vinayak was one of four children others being, Ganesh (Babarao), Mainabai and Narayan, born to Damodarpant Savarkar and Radhabai. Being descendents of a line of Sanskrit scholars, the Savarkars inculcated the love of learning into their children. Vinayak and Babarao were sent to the Shivaji School in Nasik. When Vinayak was nine years old, his mother died of cholera. Damodarpant himself looked after his children thereafter.
Vinayak's father died of plague in 1899. The burden of the family fell on Babarao's shoulders. Vinayak's patriotic spirit found an outlet through an organization called the Mitra Mela that he formed. Vinayak inducted young patriotic men like himself into the Mela. He encouraged the members of the Mela to strive for "absolute political independence for India" by whatever means necessary. In the event of an armed revolt the young crusaders toughened themselves through physical training. The Mitra Mela served the city of Nasik in many ways, especially during the plague when the group carried victims for cremation.

In March 1901, Vinayak was married to Yamunabai, daughter of Ramchandra Triambak Chiplunkar, who agreed to help with Vinayak's university education. After his matriculation examination, Vinayak enrolled in the Fergusson College in Poona in 1902.
Savarkar very soon dominated campus life. He, along with a group of students began dressing alike and using swadeshi goods only. He renamed the "Mitra Mela" as "Abhinav Bharat" and declared that "India must be independent; India must be united; India must be a republic; India must have a common language and common script." In 1905, a huge Dussehra bonfire of foreign goods was lit in Poona by Savarkar and his friends to express resentment toward the partition of Bengal. Vinayak left for London to study law in June 1906 on receiving a scholarship. The "study of law," he said "shows the vital points in the system of government, and accurate base where to strike at advantage." He vowed never to take up service under the British Government and never to accept payment from them.
Savarkar stayed at the India House in London, which was established by Pandit Shyamji, a patriot, scholar and social reformer. Savarkar founded the Free India Society which held weekly meetings and celebrated Indian festivals and anniversaries of important figures and days in the Indian freedom struggle. On May 10, 1907, scuffles broke out between Indians and Britishers at the celebration of the Golden Jubilee of the 1857 martyrs organized by the Free India Society. In 1908, Savarkar completed "the History of the War of Indian Independence." The text was banned by the British even before it was published for being "revolutionary, explosive and seditious." The book was published in France and Germany later and it did much to inspire revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh and Subash Chandra Bose. In 1909, Madanlal Dhingra, follower of Savarkar, shot Sir Wyllie of the India Office after failing in his attempt on the Viceroy, Lord Curzon's life, for the atrocities committed on Indians. Dhingra was imprisoned and a meeting of Indians in London planned to unanimously condemn his action. At the meeting Savarkar angrily shouted, "No, not unanimously!" The meeting became unruly, Savarkar's spectacles broke and blood ran down his face. The meeting was broken up with Surendranath Banerjea leaving in protest of the attack on Savarkar. That night Savarkar wrote to the London Times to clarify the reasons for his action. He stated that the meeting had no right to condemn Dhingra like a law court.
In India, Savarkar's elder brother led an armed movement against the Minto Morley reforms. Babarao was sentenced to transportation for life to the Andamans jail. In protest, a youth called Kanhere shot dead the British Collector of Nasik, Mr. A.M.T. Jackson. Savarkar was implicated in the murder of Mr. Jackson because of his contacts with the India House. Savarkar moved to Madame Cama's residence in Paris. A warrant was issued and Savarkar was arrested on March 13, 1910. In his last letters to a close friend, he conveyed his plan to attempt to escape from custody at Marseilles. His friend was to be waiting there with a car. The escape attempt at Marseilles failed. The car arrived too late.
Savarkar was brought to Bombay on the S.S. Morea and detained at Yeravada jail. Savarkar was tried and found guilty on the counts of "waging war by instigation using printed matter, and providing arms... (and) for abetting the murder of Mr. Jackson (p.118, Berry)." Savarkar was awarded 25 years imprisonment on the former charge and 25 years for the latter. A sum total of 50 years imprisonment which he was to serve at the Andamans prison. "Veer" Savarkar was only 27 years old at the time of his sentencing!
Savarkar arrived at the Andamans prison on July 4, 1911. Life for the prisoners was very harsh. Savarkar's day began at 5 a.m. chopping trees with a heavy wooden mallet and then he would be yoked to the oil mill. If prisoners talked or broke queue at mealtime, their once a year letter writing privilege was revoked. Savarkar withdrew within himself, quietly and mechanically doing the tasks presented to him. He was successful in getting permission to start a jail library. With great effort and patience he taught the illiterate convicts to read and write.
In 1920, Vithalbhai Patel demanded the release of the Savarkar brothers in the Central Legislative Assembly. Tilak and Gandhiji also appealed for Savarkars freedom. On May 2, 1921, the Savarkar brothers were brought back to India on the S.S. Maharaja.
Savarkar remained imprisoned in Ratnagiri Jail and then in Yeravada Jail until January 6, 1924 when he was freed under the condition that he would not leave Ratnagiri district and abstain from political activity for the next five years. While in Ratnagiri Jail, Savarkar wrote "Hindutva" which was smuggled out and published under the pen-name "Maharatta." On his release, Savarkar founded the Ratnagiri Hindu Sabha on January 23, 1924 which aimed to preserve India's ancient culture and work for social welfare.
Through the Sabha, Savarkar worked hard to protect minority rights. During the celebration of Hindu festivals, Savarkar visited Muslim and Christian homes to promote good will. He encouraged intercaste marriage and assisted Dr. Ambedkar in the liberation of the untouchables. He appealed for a wider use of Hindi as the mother tongue and suggested reforms to the Devanagiri script to facilitate printing. While in Ratnagiri he wrote the "Hindu Padpadashashi" and "My Transportation for Life" and a collection of poems, plays and novels.
At the end of his five year confinement in Ratnagiri, Savarkar joined Tilak's Swaraj Party and founded the Hindu Mahasabha as a separate political party. He warned of the Muslim League's designs of partitioning the nation. In 1937, Savarkar was elected President of the Hindu Mahasabha. He toured the nation widely and delivered the simple message that followers of Vedism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism were all Hindus.
At declaration of war by Britain on Germany and the arbitrary inclusion of India in the war, Savarkar said that Britain's claim of safeguarding human freedom was simply meaningless.
Savarkar agreed to join hands with the Congress in support of Gandhiji's Quit India movement as long as the Congress did not compromise the unity of the nation to the Muslim League. "The Quit India Movement must not end in a Split India Movement!" he thundered on a BBC broadcast of his speech.
On August 15, 1947, Savarkar proudly unfurled the national flag along with the saffron flag of the Mahasabha. Pakistan invaded Kashmir in October 1947 and Gandhiji began a fast for peace and Muslim rights on January 13, 1948. The Mahatma was assassinated 17 days later.
Gandhi's assassin, Nathuram Godse, was once a worker of the R.S.S. (Rashtriya Sveyamsevak Sangh), the miliant wing of the Mahasabha. Mass arrests of the Hindu Mahasabha and RSS workers ensued. Savarkar was arrested on the charge of conspiring to the murder on February 4, 1948. Godse and Apte, another accused, denied Savarkar's involvement in the crime. Savarkar condemned "the gruesome assassination of Mahatma Gandhi" and denied involvement in the crime. Savarkar was acquitted on February 10, 1949.
As Savarkar aged, he saw his grim prophecies coming true. China invaded India in 1962 and Pakistan attacked India in 1965. When the Indian Army entered Lahore, Savarkar rejoiced saying that the "best way to win a war was to carry it into the enemy's land (p. 136, Berry)."
"Veer" Savarkar died on February 27, 1966.

Lal Bahadur Shastri

Lal Bahadur Shastri

Lal Bahadur Shastri (born 1904) succeeded Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister of India in 1964. Though eclipsed by such stalwarts of the Congress party as Kamaraj (the Kingmaker) and Morarji Desai, Finance Minister in Nehru's government, Shastri emerged as the consensus candidate in the midst of party warfare. He had not been in power long before he had to attend to the difficult matter of Pakistani aggression, as represented by India, along the Rann of Kutch; and though a cease-fire under the auspices of the United Nations put a temporary halt to the fighting, the scene of conflict soon shifted to the more troubled spot of Kashmir. While Pakistan claimed that a spontaneous uprising against the Indian occupation of Kashmir had taken place, India charged Pakistan with fomenting sedition inside its territory and sending armed raiders into Jammu and Kashmir from Azad Kashmir. Shastri promised to meet force with force, and by early September the second Indo-Pakistan war had commenced.

Though the Indian army reached the outskirts of Lahore, Shastri agreed to withdraw Indian forces. He had always been identified with the interests of the working class and peasants since the days of his involvement with the freedom struggle, and now his popularity agree. But his triumph was short-lived: invited in January 1966 by the Russian Premier, Aleksei Kosygin, to Tashkent for a summit with General Muhammad Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan and commander of the nation's armed forces, Shastri suffered a fatal heart attack hours after signing a treaty where India and Pakistan agreed to not meddle in each other's internal affairs and "not to have recourse to force and to settle their disputes through peaceful means. Shastri's body was brought back to India, and a memorial, not far from the national memorial to Mahatma Gandhi, was built to honor him. It says, in fitting testimony to Shastri, "Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan" ("Honor the Soldier, Honor the Farmer"). He is, however, a largely forgotten figure, another victim of the engineering of India's social memory by Indira Gandhi and her clan.

Top 10 Medical Colleges in India

1.All India Institute of Medical Science - AIIMS, Delhi
2.Armed Forces Medical College (AFMC) , Pune
3.Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore
4.JIPMER, Punducherry
5.Kasturba Medical College , Manipal
6.Lady Hardinge Medical College , Delhi
7.Maulana Azad Medical College , Delhi
8.Grant Medical College , Mumbai
9.St. John’s Medical College , Bangalore
10.Madras Medical College , Chennai